Description
Research on long-term campaigns of violence by non-state actors often centres on two primary agents: the militants and the state. This focus tends to overlook the significant yet under-reported role of civil society in shaping the trajectory of such conflicts. This paper addresses this gap by applying Paffenholz’s civil society peacebuilding functions model to the cases of the Basque Country and Northern Ireland. It demonstrates how civil society actors contributed in diverse and multifaceted ways to conflict transformation. These contributions include mass grassroots mobilisation against violence and in support of peace agreements, the socialisation of peace and nonviolence norms, the strengthening of social cohesion, facilitation of dialogue among political actors, conflict parties and communities, monitoring and reporting of human rights violations, and advocacy for victims. In giving prominence to these roles, the paper highlights the transformative potential of civil society in contexts of entrenched political violence.
