Description
The English School (ES) stands out in International Relations (IR) for its sustained engagement with the importance of ‘standards of civilization’ in the development of international societies. However, its analysis has remained predominantly focused on diplomatic engagements between states. This paper argues that Andrew Linklater’s final work provides the theoretical tools to expand the ES, recasting these standards not merely as products of interstate negotiation, but as outcomes of long-term symbolic struggles that precipitate historical turning points. The conception of international society underpinning this analysis is that of a contested arena, where state and non-state actors negotiate and struggle over collective understandings of political legitimacy through symbols. This argument is developed through the empirical case of China’s promotion of a ‘Community with a Shared Future for Mankind’. We analyse this not as a mere foreign policy concept, but as a profound symbolic challenge to the existing standard of civilisation. It embodies an emerging struggle between Beijing’s pluralist orientation—shaped by a state-capitalist model that emphasises collective rights and non-interference—and a Western-derived, solidarist orientation that prioritises liberal democracy capitalism and individual rights. The paper demonstrates how this symbolic confrontation constitutes a critical inflection point, potentially accelerating global international society's transition to a new, multi-civilizational order with competing organizing standards. Linklater’s work thus proves indispensable for understanding how present-day symbolic struggles shape the future of global international society.
